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Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is an immune system disorder characterised by non-necrotising granulomas (small inflammatory nodules). Virtually any organ can be affected, however, granulomas most often appear in the lungs (D860) or the lymph nodes (D861). more...

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Symptoms can occasionally appear suddenly but more often than not appear gradually. When viewing X-rays of the lungs, sarcoidosis can have the appearance of tuberculosis or lymphoma.

Epidemiology

Sarcoidosis occurs throughout the world in any race. It is more commonly seen in blacks than whites, primarily people of northern European descent in the latter case. Pulmonary involvement is the most common presentation of sarcoidosis.

Signs and symptoms

Sarcoidosis is a systemic disease that can affect any organ. Common symptoms are vague, such as fatigue unchanged by sleep, lack of energy, aches and pains, dry eyes, blurry vision, shortness of breath, a dry hacking cough or skin lesions. The cutaneous symptoms are protean, and range from rashes and noduli (small bumps) to erythema nodosum or lupus pernio.

The combination of erythema nodosum, bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy and arthralgia is called Lofgren syndrome. This syndrome has a relatively good prognosis.

Renal, liver, heart or brain involvement may cause further symptoms and altered functioning. Manifestations in the eye include uveitis and retinal inflammation, which may result in loss of visual acuity or blindness. Sarcoidosis affecting the brain or nerves is known as neurosarcoidosis.

The combination of anterior uveitis, parotitis and fever is called Heerfordt-Waldenstrom syndrome. (D868)

Hypercalcemia (high calcium levels) and its symptoms may be the result of excessive vitamin D production.

Sarcoidosis most often manifests as a restrictive disease of the lungs, causing a decrease in lung volume and decreased compliance (the ability to stretch). The vital capacity (full breath in, to full breath out) is decreased, and most of this air can be blown out in the first second. This means the FEV1/FVC ratio is increased from the normal of about 80%, to 90%.

Causes and pathophysiology

No direct cause of sarcoidosis has been identified, although there have been reports of cell wall deficient bacteria that may be possible pathogens. These bacteria are not identified in standard laboratory analysis. It has been thought that there may be a hereditary factor because some families have multiple members with sarcoidosis. To date, no reliable genetic markers have been identified, and an alternate hypotheses is that family members share similar exposures to environmental pathogens. There have also been reports of transmission of sarcoidosis via organ transplants.

Sarcoidosis frequently causes a dysregulation of vitamin D production; extrarenal (outside the kidney) production can be marked. Production of vitamin D goes on outside the kidneys. This results in elevated levels of the hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and symptoms of hypervitaminosis D that may include fatigue, lack of strength or energy, irritability, metallic taste, temporary memory loss or cognitive problems. Physiological compensatory responses (e.g. suppression of the parathyroid hormone levels) may mean the patient does not develop frank hypercalcemia.

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Sarcoidosis
From American Family Physician, 7/15/04 by Jennifer J. Wu

Sarcoidosis of this disease is a multisystem granulomatous disease of unknown etiology that predominantly affects the lungs. The many forms and presentations and the lack of a single diagnostic test can make the diagnosis challenging. Physicians have limited guidance for the treatment of sarcoidosis because of a lack of high-quality randomized controlled trials (RCTs). This article reviews the epidemiology, etiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and current evidence on the treatment of pulmonary and extrapulmonary sarcoidosis.

Epidemiology

Sarcoidosis affects men and women of all races and ages. The condition usually presents in adults younger than 40 years, most frequently between 20 and 29 years of age. It is slightly more predominant in women than in men, with an incidence of 6.3 and 5.9 cases per 100,000 person-years, respectively. The lifetime risk of sarcoidosis for U.S. whites is estimated at 0.85 percent compared with 2.4 percent in U.S. blacks. Sarcoidosis is most prevalent in Swedes, Danes, and U.S. blacks. Mortality from sarcoidosis, usually caused by respiratory failure, approaches 1 to 5 percent. (1,2) Because most patients with sarcoidosis do not die of the disease, the medical challenge is to help them live well with their symptoms.

Etiology and Pathogenesis

Multiple causes of sarcoidosis have been proposed. Evidence exists to support genetic inheritance, infectious transmission, and shared exposure to environmental agents. (3) Infectious organisms such as viruses, mycobacteria, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Propionibacterium acnes have been implicated as potential causes of sarcoidosis. (1) Environmental exposure to beryllium, aluminum, and zirconium can result in a granulomatous response similar to that of sarcoidosis. (1) Current theory suggests that disease develops in genetically predetermined hosts who are exposed to certain environmental agents that trigger an exaggerated inflammatory immune response leading to granuloma formation. (1,2)

The characteristic lesion of sarcoidosis is a discrete, noncaseating, epithelioid granuloma. The early sarcoid reaction occurs when activated T cells and macrophages accumulate at sites of ongoing inflammation. These activated cells release chemoattractants and growth factors that result in cellular proliferation and granuloma formation. Sarcoid granulomas resolve or leave behind fibrotic changes. The factors leading to fibrosis are poorly understood. (1)

Clinical Presentation and Organ Involvement

The clinical presentation of sarcoidosis depends on ethnicity, duration of illness, site and extent of organ involvement, and activity of the granulomatous process. The usual modes of presentation include non-specific constitutional symptoms or symptoms related to organ-specific involvement. (2) Thirty to 50 percent of patients are asymptomatic and are diagnosed on routine chest radiographs. One third of patients have non-specific symptoms of fever, fatigue, weight loss, and malaise. This presentation is more common in blacks and Asian Indians. (1)

Acute sarcoidosis is more common in whites than in blacks and usually is associated with spontaneous remission within two years. Spontaneous remission also occurs in patients with Lofgren's syndrome, which consists of bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, ankle arthritis, erythema nodosum, fever, myalgia, and weight loss. (1) Chronic sarcoidosis presents insidiously with symptoms related to the organ involved, such as cough and dyspnea from pulmonary infiltration. Chronic sarcoidosis commonly follows a relapsing and protracted time course. (2) Chronic progressive disease affects 10 to 30 percent of patients. Spontaneous remission occurs in approximately two thirds of these patients. Blacks have increased rates of pulmonary involvement, a worse long-term prognosis, and more frequent relapses. (1)

The lungs are involved in more than 90 percent of patients, with sarcoid usually presenting as interstitial disease. Symptoms are dry cough, dyspnea, and chest discomfort. Pulmonary sarcoidosis has an unpredictable course that may result in spontaneous remission or lead to progressive loss of lung function with fibrosis. There are four stages of pulmonary sarcoidosis (Table 1 (2) and Figure 1). Patients with stage I or II disease may have no symptoms, whereas stages III and IV can be characterized by progressive dyspnea, loss of lung function, and fibrosis. Airway involvement can occur and may result in airflow limitation, persistent cough and, in severe cases, bronchiectasis. Spontaneous remission can be expected in 55 to 90 percent of patients with stage I disease, 40 to 70 percent with stage II disease, 10 to 20 percent with stage III disease, and zero to 5 percent with stage IV disease. (1,2)

Sarcoidosis can involve multiple organs and cause a variety of clinical symptoms (Table 2). (1,2) Although granulomas are found in 50 to 80 percent of liver biopsies, they rarely result in clinically significant hepatic dysfunction and usually cause only mild abnormalities in liver function test results.

Twenty-five percent of patients have skin involvement. Lesions can range from non-specific maculopapular eruptions, such as plaques and nodules, to erythema nodosum and lupus pernio. Erythema nodosum is the characteristic lesion of acute sarcoid, which has a good prognosis. Lupus pernio consists of indurated plaques and discoloration of the nose, cheeks, lips, and ears and usually indicates a chronic disease course that is unlikely to result in spontaneous remission. Adverse prognostic factors in patients with sarcoidosis are summarized in Table

Children with sarcoidosis have the same organ involvement as adults but a more favorable prognosis. Sarcoidosis rarely interferes with pregnancy, but the disease can worsen at six months' postpartum. New diagnoses of sarcoidosis in the elderly are rare and should be distinguished from a local sarcoid reaction that occurs with malignancies. (1)

Diagnosis

Because of its nonspecific presentation, the diagnosis of sarcoidosis can be challenging. It has been shown recently that the diagnosis often is delayed. (4) Patients with pulmonary symptoms have the more prolonged diagnosis. Those with dermatologic findings are diagnosed with less delay. (4)

The essential factors for diagnosis include compatible clinicoradiologic features, histologic proof of noncaseating epithelioid granulomas, and exclusion of similar diseases. (1,2) Posteroanterior chest radiographs are useful in staging the disease. Trans-bronchial lung biopsy is recommended in most cases, but easily accessible skin lesions or peripheral lymph nodes also may be sampled. (1)

When biopsy is refused or is negative, certain biologic markers may assist in making a diagnosis. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid with a CD4 to CD8 ratio greater than 3.5, panda and lambda patterns on gallium scan, or an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) level double the normal value may provide additional diagnostic information, although each factor lacks specificity. (1,2) ACE levels usually are followed as a marker of disease 4. (1)

The initial evaluation of patients with sarcoidosis aims to confirm the diagnosis, assess the activity rather than for diagnostic purposes. Other potential causes of granuloma formation are listed in Table extent and severity of involvement, identify stable versus progressive disease, and judge whether therapy will benefit the patient (Table 5). (1) Follow-up at recommended intervals (Table 6) (1) and consultation with subspecialists likely will be necessary, depending on disease manifestation.

Treatment

PULMONARY THERAPY

Systemic Corticosteroids. Oral corticosteroids are the mainstay of treatment for pulmonary sarcoidosis. In a Cochrane review (5) of corticosteroids for pulmonary sarcoidosis, treatment with oral steroids for six to 24 months improved chest radiograph findings compared with placebo. Patients with interstitial lung disease (stages II and III) had benefits in global scores and chest radiographs. (5) Data show that no treatment is necessary for patients with stage I disease (bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy alone). (5,6)

It is not known whether steroids improve long-term lung function or favorably alter disease progression. (5) A recent meta-analysis of mortality of intrathoracic sarcoidosis raises the possibility that a lower threshold for administering corticosteroids is associated with an increased mortality risk in referral centers. (7) Few studies have looked at long-term follow-up after therapy with oral steroids. One recent RCT that examined follow-up after therapy with oral and inhaled steroids concluded that immediate treatment of stages II and III sarcoidosis, but not stage I, improved the five-year prognosis with regard to lung-function variables and the need for further treatment. (5)

There are no specific recommendations about when to initiate corticosteroid treatment. Data suggest that oral steroids should be used in patients with stages II and III disease, with moderate to severe or progressive symptoms and chest radiograph changes. It is unclear if asymptomatic patients will ever need therapy, even if they have diffuse lung infiltration. Because there is no consensus on the optimal dosage or duration of therapy, the course is individualized for each patient. A recent joint statement of the American Thoracic Society, the European Respiratory Society, and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (1) included the following guidelines: an initiation dose of prednisone of 20 to 40 mg per day or its equivalent is recommended. Every-other-day dosing may be considered. Patients should be evaluated after one to three months for response. Patients who fail treatment after three months usually will not respond to a more protracted course of treatment. In responders, the prednisone dosage should be tapered to 5 to 10 mg per day or to an every-other-day regimen, and therapy should continue for a minimum of 12 months. (1) There is no consensus guidance on treatment beyond two years. (2) Patients must be monitored after cessation of treatment for possible relapse; some patients will require long-term low-dose therapy to prevent recurrent disease. (1)

The risk of osteoporosis must be addressed in patients taking prolonged systemic corticosteroids. Although few studies have addressed this issue, the bisphosphonate alendronate (Fosamax) and nasal calcitonin (Miacalcin) have been shown to prevent osteoporosis in patients with sarcoidosis. (8,9) Although not available in the United States, deflazacort, a prednisolone derivative with bone-sparing effects, was favored in one study over prednisone in the treatment of chronic sarcoidosis. (10) Calcium and vitamin D supplementation should be used with caution because of the risk of hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria in patients with sarcoidosis. (1)

Inhaled Corticosteroids. There is little evidence for the efficacy of inhaled steroids in the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis. (5) Theoretically, inhaled steroids should provide relief for the endobronchial component of sarcoidosis (i.e., cough). Studies have reported conflicting results about the efficacy of inhaled budesonide (Rhinocort) on disease stages I, II, and III. (11-13) One study (13) showed improvement in symptoms and inspiratory vital capacity with inhaled budesonide, but no change in chest radiograph findings, ACE level, or other lung function parameters. A recent RCT14 of inhaled fluticasone (Flovent) in the treatment of chronic stable sarcoidosis showed no benefit in lung function and chest radiographs, but a positive tendency toward symptomatic relief that was not statistically significant. Inhaled corticosteroids may be considered for the symptomatic relief of cough, although limited data support their use. (1,5)

Cytotoxic Agents. Cytotoxic agents may benefit patients who do not respond to corticosteroids. They are usually combined with oral steroids but sometimes used as single agents. Limited evidence exists to guide physicians in the initiation, dosage, and duration of therapy. Because of safety factors, methotrexate (Rheumatrex) and azathioprine (Imuran) are the preferred agents. (1,2)

Clinical data on the effects of methotrexate in the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis are limited to a few series and some case reports. A recent small RCT (15) showed that 12 months of therapy with methotrexate was beneficial in patients with acute, symptomatic sarcoidosis. Other trials using methotrexate at 10 to 25 mg per week show its possible benefit as a steroid-sparing agent. Relapses were frequent after discontinuation of treatment, suggesting that methotrexate suppresses but does not cure the disease. (1,15,16) Hypersensitivity pneumonitis and hepatotoxicity have been described in patients treated with methotrexate. This drug should be avoided in patients with renal failure. (1) Folate given concomitantly decreases toxicity.

Azathioprine has been shown to be effective in a limited number of cases. (2) Small clinical trials have demonstrated that azathioprine, when used for treatment of chronic pulmonary sarcoidosis, is effective as a corticosteroid-sparing agent. (17,18) An increased risk of malignancy has been reported in transplant patients taking azathioprine. (1)

Chlorambucil (Leukeran) has been used as an alternative to steroids in a limited number of patients. (19,20) Because of its increased risk of malignancy, this therapy has been abandoned by most physicians. (1) Little is described about the use of cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) in pulmonary sarcoidosis. High toxicity limits its use to patients with severe refractory disease. (1)

Immunomodulators. Immunomodulators have been used successfully in select patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. The action of these drugs stems from immunosuppressive characteristics. Many of them modulate the activity of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-[alpha]). TNF-[alpha] secreted by macrophages has been implicated in granuloma formation. (21)

In one study, (22) the antimalarial agent chloroquine (Aralen) has been shown to decrease disease activity in advanced pulmonary sarcoidosis. Case reports (23) also have suggested benefit in pulmonary sarcoidosis with the use of hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil). These agents are more likely to be suppressive than curative and may work by inhibiting macrophage production of TNF-[alpha]. (22) Because of the potential for retinal toxicity, patients on this regimen must have frequent ophthalmologic examinations. (1) Despite a theoretic benefit on T helper-cell suppression, cyclosporine (Neoral) at conventional dosages has not been beneficial in the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis. (24)

Pentoxifylline (Trental) inhibits TNF-[alpha] production from alveolar macrophages in patients with sarcoidosis. (25) In one small clinical trial, pentoxifylline was promising as a steroid-sparing agent in progressive pulmonary sarcoidosis. (26) Through its anti-TNF-[alpha] activity, infliximab (Remicade) has presumptive usefulness in sarcoidosis treatment. Data limited to case reports show promising results in the treatment of complicated or refractory pulmonary sarcoidosis. (27,28) Thalidomide (Thalomid) has been shown to be effective on certain dermatologic lesions, yet its action in pulmonary sarcoidosis is less well described. (29) Case reports show some positive response in patients unable to tolerate corticosteroids. (30) Thalidomide's mechanism of action also derives from anti-TNF-[alpha] activity. (31)

A recent Cochrane review of immunosup-pressive and cytotoxic therapy for pulmonary sarcoidosis was unable to recommend the use of these agents.32 High-quality studies are needed to examine the use of these drugs, especially the newer immunomodulators that act on TNF-[alpha], for treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis.

Surgical Intervention. Life-threatening hemoptysis may occur in advanced fibrocystic sarcoidosis with bronchiectasis and mycetomas. Surgical resection and embolization of bronchial arteries may control the bleeding. Hemoptysis also may respond to conservative management with antibiotics, corticosteroids, bed rest, and cough suppression. (2) End-stage pulmonary sarcoidosis with cor pulmonale may warrant supplemental oxygen, diuretics, and bronchodilators for airway obstruction. (2) Lung transplantation has been performed successfully in patients with end-stage sarcoidosis. Granuloma formation has been described in lung allografts, although it usually is not clinically relevant. (33)

Therapy for Extrapulmonary Sarcoidosis

Despite the lack of RCTs demonstrating therapeutic efficacy, corticosteroids are still the mainstay of treatment for extrapulmonary sarcoidosis. Combination or adjuvant therapy has been investigated in many small studies.

OPHTHALMOLOGIC SARCOIDOSIS

Acute anterior uveitis usually clears spontaneously or after treatment with topical corticosteroids. (1,2) Systemic corticosteroids are indicated for treatment of optic neuritis and uveitis resistant to topical agents. (2,34) If ophthalmic surgery is necessary, it should be delayed until the ocular condition is inactive. (34) One study showed methotrexate as an effective adjunctive agent in the treatment of chronic sarcoid-associated panuveitis. (35)

CUTANEOUS SARCOIDOSIS

Erythema nodosum, presenting alone or as part of Lofgren's syndrome, usually resolves in six to eight weeks with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs alone. (1) Systemic corticosteroids are used to treat lupus pernio, which indicates chronic sarcoidosis and a poor prognosis. (2)

In addition to intralesional steroid injections and topical corticosteroids with occlusive dressings, (3) one study of 12 patients showed minocycline hydrochloride (Dynacin) and doxycycline (Vibramycin) to be effective. (36) Systemic corticosteroids for large or disfiguring lesions and adjunctive therapy with methotrexate and hydroxy-chloroquine also have been shown to be beneficial. (3) Thalidomide may be well tolerated and useful in the treatment of chronic cutaneous sarcoidosis. (29)

NEUROSARCOIDOSIS

Cranial neuropathy, persistent peripheral neuropathy, and intracranial lesions can be treated medically with oral corticosteroids (40 to 80 mg per day). (3) Surgical intervention is necessary for hydrocephalus and symptomatic mass lesions. (3) Adjunctive therapy with cyclosporine and azathioprine may be useful, especially in patients with cortisone-refractory neurosarcoidosis. (37,38)

CARDIAC SARCOIDOSIS

Treatment of cardiac sarcoidosis with corticosteroids is likely to be beneficial but is not well described in the literature. Surgical options include placement of pacemakers or cardioverter-defibrillators, resection of affected areas of the heart, and cardiac transplantation. (3,39) Pharmacologic therapy for treatment of congestive heart failure and arrhythmias should be used when indicated. (39)

Drugs for the treatment of sarcoidosis are listed in Table 7. (40) The primary care physician should consult subspecialists before prescribing cytotoxic or immunomodulator agents.

Members of various family practice departments develop articles for "Practical Therapeutics." This article is one in a series coordinated by the Department of Family and Preventive Medicine at the University of California, San Diego. Guest editor of the series is Tyson Ikeda, M.D.

The authors indicate no conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.

The authors thank Antonino Catanzaro, M.D., for help in reviewing the manuscript.

Figures 1 top and 1 center are used with permission from David Levin, M.D.

References

(1.) Statement on sarcoidosis. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors and by the ERS Executive Committee, February 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:736-55.

(2.) Costabel U. Sarcoidosis: clinical update. Eur Respir J Suppl 2001;32:56s-68s.

(3.) Newman LS, Rose CS, Maier LA. Sarcoidosis [published correction in N Engl J Med 1997;337:139]. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1224-34.

(4.) Judson MA, Thompson BW, Rabin DL, Steimel J, Knattereud GL, Lackland DT, et al. The diagnostic pathway to sarcoidosis. Chest 2003;123:406-12.

(5.) Pietinalho A, Tukiainen P, Haahtela T, Persson T, Selroos O; Finnish Pulmonary Sarcoidosis Study Group. Early treatment of stage II sarcoidosis improves 5-year pulmonary function. Chest 2002;121:24-31.

(6.) Paramothayan NS, Jones PW. Corticosteroids for pulmonary sarcoidosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(1): CD001114.

(7.) Reich JM. Mortality of intrathoracic sarcoidosis in referral vs population-based settings: influence of stage, ethnicity, and corticosteroid therapy. Chest 2002;121:32-9.

(8.) Gonnelli S, Rottoli P, Cepollaro C, Pondrelli C, Cappiello V, Vagliasindi M, et al. Prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis with alendronate in sarcoid patients. Calcif Tissue Int 1997;61:382-5.

(9.) Montemurro L, Schiraldi G, Fraioli P, Tosi G, Riboldi A, Rizzato G. Prevention of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis with salmon calcitonin in sarcoid patients. Calcif Tissue Int 1991;49:71-6.

(10.) Rizzato G, Riboldi A, Imbimbo B, Torresin A, Milani S. The long-term efficacy and safety of two different corticosteroids in chronic sarcoidosis. Respir Med 1997;91:449-60.

(11.) Zych D, Pawlicka L, Zielinski J. Inhaled budesonide vs prednisone in the maintenance treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1993;10:56-61.

(12.) Milman N, Graudal N, Grode G, Munch E. No effect of high-dose inhaled steroids in pulmonary sarcoidosis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Intern Med 1994;236:285-90.

(13.) Alberts C, van der Mark TW, Jansen HM. Inhaled budesonide in pulmonary sarcoidosis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Dutch Study Group on Pulmonary Sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 1995;8:682-8.

(14.) du Bois RM, Greenhalgh PM, Southcott AM, Johnson NM, Harris TA. Randomized trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in chronic stable pulmonary sarcoidosis: a pilot study. Eur Respir J 1999;13:1345-50.

(15.) Baughman RP, Winget DB, Lower EE. Methotrexate is steroid sparing in acute sarcoidosis: results of a double blind, randomized trial. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2000;17:60-6.

(16.) Vucinic VM. What is the future of methotrexate in sarcoidosis? A study and review. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2002;8: 470-6.

(17.) Muller-Quernheim J, Kienast K, Held M, Pfeifer S, Costabel U. Treatment of chronic sarcoidosis with an azathioprine/prednisolone regimen. Eur Respir J 1999;14:1117-22.

(18.) Lewis SJ, Ainslie GM, Bateman ED. Efficacy of azathioprine as second-line treatment in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 1999;16:87-92.

(19.) Israel HL, McComb BL. Chlorambucil treatment of sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1991;8:35-41.

(20.) Kataria YP. Chlorambucil in sarcoidosis. Chest 1980; 78:36-43.

(21.) Ziegenhagen MW, Rothe ME, Zissel G, Muller-Quernheim J. Exaggerated TNFalpha release of alveolar macrophages in corticosteroid resistant sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2002;19:185-90.

(22.) Baltzan M, Mehta S, Kirkham TH, Cosio MG. Randomized trial of prolonged chloroquine therapy in advanced pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:192-7.

(23.) Hilton JM, Cooper DM, Henry RL. Hydroxychloroquine therapy of diffuse pulmonary sarcoidosis in two Australian male children. Respirology 1997;2:71-4.

(24.) Wyser CP, van Schalkwyk EM, Alheit B, Bardin PG, Joubert JR. Treatment of progressive pulmonary sarcoidosis with cyclosporin A. A randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:1371-6.

(25.) Marques LJ, Zheng L, Poulakis N, Guzman J, Costabel U. Pentoxifylline inhibits TNF-alpha production from human alveolar macrophages. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:508-11.

(26.) Zabel P, Entzian P, Dalhoff K, Schlaak M. Pentoxifylline in treatment of sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:1665-9.

(27.) Baughman RP, Lower EE. Infliximab for refractory sarcoidosis [published correction in Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2001;18:310]. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2001;18:70-4.

(28.) Yee AM, Pochapin MB. Treatment of complicated sarcoidosis with infliximab anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha therapy. Ann Intern Med 2001;135:27-31.

(29.) Baughman RP, Judson MA, Teirstein AS, Moller DR, Lower EE. Thalidomide for chronic sarcoidosis. Chest 2002;122:227-32.

(30.) Carlesimo M, Giustini S, Rossi A, Bonaccorsi P, Calvieri S. Treatment of cutaneous and pulmonary sarcoidosis with thalidomide. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995;32(5 pt 2):866-9.

(31.) Baughman RP. Therapeutic options for sarcoidosis: new and old. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2002;8:464-9.

(32.) Paramothayan S, Lasserson T, Walters EH. Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic therapy for pulmonary sarcoidosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(1):CD003536.

(33.) Nunley DR, Hattler B, Keenan RJ, Iacono AT, Yousem S, Ohori NP, et al. Lung transplantation for end-stage pulmonary sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 1999;16:93-100.

(34.) Rothova A. Ocular involvement in sarcoidosis. Br J Ophathalmol 2000;84:110-6.

(35.) Dev S, McCallum RM, Jaffe GJ. Methotrexate treatment for sarcoid-associated panuveitis. Ophthalmology 1999;106:111-8.

(36.) Bachelez H, Senet P, Cadranel J, Kaoukhov A, Dubertret L. The use of tetracyclines for the treatment of sarcoidosis. Arch Dermatol 2001;137:69-73.

(37.) Agbogu BN, Stern BJ, Sewell C, Yang G. Therapeutic considerations in patients with refractory neurosarcoidosis. Arch Neurol 1995;52:875-9.

(38.) Stern BJ, Schonfeld SA, Sewell C, Krumholz A, Scott P, Belendiuk G. The treatment of neurosarcoidosis with cyclosporine. Arch Neurol 1992;49:1065-72.

(39.) Sekiguchi M, Yazaki Y, Isobe M, Hiroe M. Cardiac sarcoidosis: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic considerations. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1996;10:495-510.

(40.) Baughman RP, Lower EE, du Bois RM. Sarcoidosis. Lancet 2003;361:1111-8.

JENNIFER J. WU, M.D., is assistant clinical professor in the Department of Family and Preventive Medicine at the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla. She received her medical degree from Albany Medical College in Albany, N.Y., and completed her family medicine residency at the University of California, San Francisco-Fresno Family Medicine Program.

KARIN RASHCOVSKY SCHIFF, M.D., C.M., is a recent graduate of the University of California, San Diego, Family Medicine Residency Program where she was chief resident. She received her medical degree from McGill University Faculty of Medicine, Montreal, Canada.

Address correspondence to Jennifer J. Wu, M.D., U.C.S.D. Medical Group Family Medicine, 330 Lewis St., Suite 400, San Diego, CA 92103 (e-mail: j1wu@ucsd.edu). Reprints are not available from the authors.

COPYRIGHT 2004 American Academy of Family Physicians
COPYRIGHT 2004 Gale Group

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