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Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is an immune system disorder characterised by non-necrotising granulomas (small inflammatory nodules). Virtually any organ can be affected, however, granulomas most often appear in the lungs (D860) or the lymph nodes (D861). more...

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Symptoms can occasionally appear suddenly but more often than not appear gradually. When viewing X-rays of the lungs, sarcoidosis can have the appearance of tuberculosis or lymphoma.

Epidemiology

Sarcoidosis occurs throughout the world in any race. It is more commonly seen in blacks than whites, primarily people of northern European descent in the latter case. Pulmonary involvement is the most common presentation of sarcoidosis.

Signs and symptoms

Sarcoidosis is a systemic disease that can affect any organ. Common symptoms are vague, such as fatigue unchanged by sleep, lack of energy, aches and pains, dry eyes, blurry vision, shortness of breath, a dry hacking cough or skin lesions. The cutaneous symptoms are protean, and range from rashes and noduli (small bumps) to erythema nodosum or lupus pernio.

The combination of erythema nodosum, bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy and arthralgia is called Lofgren syndrome. This syndrome has a relatively good prognosis.

Renal, liver, heart or brain involvement may cause further symptoms and altered functioning. Manifestations in the eye include uveitis and retinal inflammation, which may result in loss of visual acuity or blindness. Sarcoidosis affecting the brain or nerves is known as neurosarcoidosis.

The combination of anterior uveitis, parotitis and fever is called Heerfordt-Waldenstrom syndrome. (D868)

Hypercalcemia (high calcium levels) and its symptoms may be the result of excessive vitamin D production.

Sarcoidosis most often manifests as a restrictive disease of the lungs, causing a decrease in lung volume and decreased compliance (the ability to stretch). The vital capacity (full breath in, to full breath out) is decreased, and most of this air can be blown out in the first second. This means the FEV1/FVC ratio is increased from the normal of about 80%, to 90%.

Causes and pathophysiology

No direct cause of sarcoidosis has been identified, although there have been reports of cell wall deficient bacteria that may be possible pathogens. These bacteria are not identified in standard laboratory analysis. It has been thought that there may be a hereditary factor because some families have multiple members with sarcoidosis. To date, no reliable genetic markers have been identified, and an alternate hypotheses is that family members share similar exposures to environmental pathogens. There have also been reports of transmission of sarcoidosis via organ transplants.

Sarcoidosis frequently causes a dysregulation of vitamin D production; extrarenal (outside the kidney) production can be marked. Production of vitamin D goes on outside the kidneys. This results in elevated levels of the hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and symptoms of hypervitaminosis D that may include fatigue, lack of strength or energy, irritability, metallic taste, temporary memory loss or cognitive problems. Physiological compensatory responses (e.g. suppression of the parathyroid hormone levels) may mean the patient does not develop frank hypercalcemia.

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QT dispersion in sarcoidosis
From CHEST, 10/1/05 by Huseyin Uyarel

Study objectives: QT dispersion (QTd) is the maximal interlead difference in QT interval on surface 12-lead ECG. An increase in QTd is found in various cardiac diseases. Sarcoidosis augments inhomogeneity in ventricular repolarization by sarcoid granuloma, which significantly correlates with ventricular fibrillation. Changes in QTd in the course of sarcoidosis have not been investigated previously.

Design: The study included 35 patients with systemic sarcoidosis. The diagnosis of systemic sarcoidosis was made by biopsy. Thallium scintigraphy was performed in all patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Cardiac sarcoidosis was diagnosed in 16 patients based on abnormal thallium scintigraphy and normal coronary arteriography results. QTd, corrected QTd (cQTd), maximum QT (QTmax), maximum corrected QT (cQTmax), minimum QT, and minimum corrected QT intervals were measured. Twenty-four healthy subjects represented the control group for QT interval analysis.

Measurements and results: In the cardiac sarcoidosis group, mean QTd [+ or -] SD) was significantly greater than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group and control group (49.50 [+ or -] 10.86 ms, 28.14 [+ or -] 11.02 ms, and 27.08 [+ or -] 10.41 ms, respectively; p < 0.001). cQTd was significantly greater in the cardiac sarcoidosis group than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group and control group (53.17 [+ or -] 10.44 ms, 30.61 [+ or -] 10.94 ms, and 29.01 [+ or -] 10.52 ms, respectively; p < 0.001). QTmax (440 [+ or -] 15.01 ms, 409 [+ or -] 14.86 ms, and 410 [+ or -] 13.21 ms; p < 0.001) and cQTmax (449 [+ or -] 16.31 ms, 417 [+ or -] 12.51 ms, and 418 [+ or -] 11.76, respectively; p < 0.001) were also significantly greater in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. In a limited follow-up group (11 cardiac and 9 noncardiac sarcoidosis patients), the incidence of premature ventricular contraction (PVC) on ECG was greater in the cardiac sarcoidosis group than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group (36% and 0%, respectively; p < 0.05). A medium correlation existed between QTd and PVC (r = 0.331, p < 0.05).

Conclusions: QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax are prolonged in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis compared to the patients with noncardiac sarcoidosis and control subjects. The incidence of PVC on ECG was greater in the cardiac sarcoidosis group than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group.

Key words: sarcoidosis; sarcoidosis heart; QT intervals

Abbreviations: ACE = angiotensin-converting enzyme; cQTd = corrected QT dispersion; cQTmax = maximum corrected QT; PVC = premature ventricular contraction; QTd = QT dispersion; QTmax = maximum QT; QTmin = minimum QT; VT = ventricular tachycardia

**********

Sarcoidosis is a multisystem disorder of unknown etiology characterized by infiltration of several organ systems by noncaseating granulomas. The lungs, skin, and eyes are most commonly affected. Sarcoidosis is an uncommon disease with a prevalence of approximately 20/100.000. (1) Clinically recognizable sarcoid involvement of the heart occurs in < 10% of patients, although cardiac granulomas are found in as many as 30% at autopsy. (2) In general, sarcoidosis has a mortality rate of only 0.2/100.000, (1) but the prognosis when the heart is involved is very much worse, approximately 40% by 5 years. (3) In Japan, approximately 73% of patients with myocardial sarcoidosis have died, (4) and sudden death was accepted as the most common manifestation of clinically significant myocardial involvement. (5-7)

A potential clinical application of interlead QT difference was proposed in 1990 by Day et al, (8) termed, QT dispersion (QTd). The potential value of QTd for risk stratification was examined in populations vulnerable to sudden cardiac death, such as patients with ischemia, (9) congestive heart failure, (10,11) or after myocardial infarction. (12,13) Changes in QTd in the course of sarcoidosis have not been investigated. We hypothesized that QTd would increase in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis, which may be responsible for arrhythmic events including sudden death.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Groups

Forty-one consecutive outpatients with transbronchial biopsy specimen-proved pulmonary sarcoidosis were recruited from a specialized chest disease hospital clinic between January 1, 2000, and October 31, 2001. Six patients were excluded from the study because of the presence of one or more of the following criteria: presence of lung disease other than sarcoidosis, presence of known ischemic or structural heart disease, systemic hypertension, anemia, diabetes mellitus, pregnancy, alcoholism, any arrhythmia, and conduction defects. One of six patients was excluded due to not having ECG criteria. Thus, the patient group included 35 patients who had a mean [+ or -] SD disease duration of 21 [+ or -] 12 months (range, 1 to 43 months). Patients with systemic sarcoidosis were further classified into two subgroups depending on the myocardial thallium involvement. Cardiac sarcoidosis was diagnosed in 16 patients on the basis of abnormal thallium scintigraphy and normal coronary angiography results. The control group consisted of 24 healthy volunteers without a history of cardiovascular disease and risk factors who had normal clinical examinations.

Study Protocol

Patients were informed about the study protocol, consent was obtained from each patient, and approval was made by the local ethical committee. Echocardiographic examination and thallium scintigraphy were performed in all patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Coronary angiography was performed in patients with abnormal thallium scintigraphy results.

Echocardiographic Examination

Transthoracic echocardiography was performed by one of the authors who did not have any information of the clinical data (Vingmed System Five; GE Medical Systems; Milwaukee, WI; with a 2.5-MHz phased-array transducer). Recordings were made on patients positioned in the left lateral decubitus position. The left ventricular ejection fraction was measured using a modified Simpson rule. (14)

Thallium Scintigraphy

Myocardial [sup.201]Tl scintigraphy was performed in all patients with systemic sarcoidosis. After an overnight fast, 1.5 mCi of [sup.201]Tl was administered IV at peak exercise, and scans were recorded with a high-resolution scintillation camera, with a high-resolution, low-energy, parallel-hole collimator. Images were obtained in the anterior, 45[degrees] left anterior oblique, and left lateral projections. Resting images were obtained 2 h later with the same protocol, and the tomographic images of the vertical long axis, horizontal long axis, and short axis were reconstructed. Scans were evaluated visually by two physicians. In the presence of normal coronary arteries, perfusion defects, especially reverse redistribution on [sup.201]Tl imaging in a patient with biopsy-proven systemic sarcoidosis, were accepted as a sign of cardiac involvement. (15)

QTd Analysis

All standard 12-lead ECGs were obtained simultaneously using a recorder (Pagewriter 300 pi; Hewlett Packard; Andover, MA) set at paper speed of 50 mm/s and 2 mV/cm standardization. The ECGs were numbered and presented to the analyzing investigators without name and date information. All QT interval measurements were performed manually and blindly by two medically qualified investigators. The QT interval was measured from the onset of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave, defined as the return to the T-P isoelectric line. The measurements were carried out with a precision of 0.01 mm (0.4 ms). If a U wave was present, the QT interval was measured to the nadir between the T and U waves. If the T wave could not be clearly determined, that lead was excluded. An average value of three readings was calculated for each lead. Only recordings with more than eight analyzable leads were included. Maximum QT (QTmax) was determined as the lead with the longest QT interval. Minimum QT (QTmin) was determined as the lead with the shortest QT interval. QTd was defined as the difference between the longest and shortest QT intervals; rate correction was performed with the Bazett formula (16): corrected QTd (cQTd) = Qtd/[square root of (R-R interval)] in milliseconds. This traditional correction procedure is intended to obviate the dependence of QT interval on heart rate. We quantified the reliability of each investigator by having them remeasure a random sample of 15 ECGs.

Statistical Analysis

All statistical studies were carried out using statistical software (SPSS version 10.0; SPSS; Chicago, IL). Quantitative variables were expressed as mean [+ or -] SD, and qualitative variables were expressed as a percentage. Spearman p correlation analysis was performed between premature ventricular contraction (PVC) and QTd. All numeric variables showed normal distribution, and the variance between the study groups was similar. Thus, comparison among the study groups for various numeric parameters was carried out by one-way analysis of variance and the post hoc Tukey honestly significantly different test for multiple comparisons. Comparisons of proportions were performed by using a [chi square] test. The reliability of each operator was estimated from repeated ECGs, using the formula: 1 - [S.sup.2]d/[S.sup.2]x, where: [S.sup.2]d = variance of the difference in the two readings, and S2x = variance of the average of the two readings; p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Demographics and Patient Characteristics

There were no differences in age and sex between groups. All subjects were normotensive, and there were no significant differences in systolic or diastolic BPs and echocardiographic ejection fraction among study groups (Table 1). Radiologic stages were not significantly different between groups with cardiac sarcoidosis (stage 1, 46%; stage 2, 48%; stage 3, 8%) and noncardiac sarcoidosis (stage 1, 30%; stage 2, 55%; stage 3, 15%). There was no difference in disease duration between groups with cardiac sarcoidosis and noncardiac sarcoidosis (21 [+ or -] 13 months vs 22 [+ or -] 12 months, respectively). Pulmonary function tests such as [FEV.sub.1] and FVC, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) levels, and [Ca.sup.++] levels were not different between sarcoidosis patients with and without thallium involvement (Table 2).

ECG Characteristics

In the cardiac sarcoidosis group, QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and corrected QTmax (cQTmax) were significantly greater than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group and control group (p < 0.001). There were no differences in QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax between the noncardiac sarcoidosis group and the control group. Also, there were no differences in QTmin, corrected QTmin durations, ST-segment depression, and T-wave inversion ratios between study groups. The estimates of reliability for the measurement of QTd were 0.88 and 0.90 for readers 1 and 2, respectively, and 0.89 and 0.91 for cQTd (Table 3).

Follow-up Characteristics of Patients

Twenty patients are still undergoing follow-up: 11 patients with cardiac sarcoidosis and 9 patients with noncardiac sarcoidosis. Five patients (45%) with cardiac sarcoidosis and three patients (33%) with noncardiac sarcoidosis are being treated with prednisolone. None of the study patients have heart failure, syncope, or presyncope. In the last examination, which was made 2 months ago, four cardiac sarcoidosis patients who were receiving prednisolone had unifocal bigeminy PVCs on ECG. They had no cardiac or other noncardiac diseases. PVCs on ECG were greater in the cardiac sarcoidosis group than in the noncardiac sarcoidosis group (36% vs 0%, p < 0.05; Table 4). Therefore, the prednisolone dose was increased. A medium significant correlation existed between PVC and QTd (r = 0.331, p < 0.05). Figures 1, 2 show the [sup.201]Tl scan picture and ECG of the same patient with cardiac sarcoidosis, respectively.

[FIGURES 1-2 OMITTED]

DISCUSSION

To our knowledge, the present study is the first to use QT interval analysis in patients with sarcoidosis. This study shows that QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax are affected in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. We observed that the incidence of PVC is greater in the cardiac sarcoidosis group and that there is a significant correlation between QTd and PVC. In one study, (17) QTd was greater in 56 patients with inducible ventricular tachycardia (VT), compared with 106 noninducible patients; both groups of patients had greater QTd than the 144 healthy control subjects. A second study (18) of 66 patients reported that increased QTd predicts inducible VT with a sensitivity of 67% and a specificity of 94%. De Bruyne and colleagues (19) studied 5,812 men and women [greater than or equal to] 55 years old in the Rotterdam Study using the modular ECG analysis system. During a mean follow-up of 4 years, cardiac death, sudden cardiac death, and total mortality rates were increased in the highest cQTd tertile compared with the lowest tertile. A second large-scale, population-based study (20) of 1,839 Native American Indians enrolled in the Strong Heart Study also demonstrated that QTd predicts mortality; QTd was found to be a significant predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality during a mean follow-up of 3.7 years. It has also been suggested that QTmax may also be predictive of cardiac death. (21-23) Rossing et al (22) in a study of patients with type I diabetes, reported that QTmax was more predictive of cardiac death than cQTd, but these data were unadjusted for underlying ischemia as reflected by Minnesota coding. Although there are data about congestive heart failure and Qtd, (10,11) we have no information about infiltrative cardiomyopathies other than cardiac sarcoidosis and QTd.

For cardiac diagnosis, endomyocardial biopsy, (5) echocardiography, (24) myocardial perfusion scintigraphy, (25) and 24-h Holter recordings (26) are used. Twenty-four-hour Holter monitoring has been used to screen arrhythmias and conduction defects in suspected sarcoidosis, (26) but the usefulness as a noninvasive indicator of sudden death in sarcoidosis has not been established or investigated. Two thirds of patients with cardiac sarcoidosis die suddenly. VT is one of the most frequently reported cardiac arrhythmias and, together with complete heart block, is presumed to be the cause of sudden death in most patients with myocardial sarcoidosis. (27) The authors accepted that granulomas and development of ventricular aneurysms provide a substrate for VT and ventricular fibrillation. Cardiac sarcoidosis, with alteration of the normal kinetic of involved area of the heart, could induce an abnormal mechanical stimulation of the receptors in the myocardial wall with a reflex increase of the sympathetic activity. Sarcoid granuloma can develop a focus for automaticity or develop reentrant arrhythmia. In our study, prolongation of QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis was found in comparison with noncardiac sarcoidosis patients and a control group of healthy subjects. PVCs are significantly frequent in cardiac sarcoidosis patients than in noncardiac sarcoidosis patients, and there is a medium correlation between QTd and PVC. Therefore, these parameters might be risk factors for sudden death in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis, and ECG analysis might be used as a part of risk stratification. Interestingly, the results of our study showed that increased QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax may indicate cardiac involvement. Accordingly, these parameters may be used to differentiate the patients with and without cardiac involvement. Prospective studies should be done to examine this phenomenon.

Study Limitations

Measurement of the QT interval and its dispersion is not standardized. In this study, we used the method suggested by Day et al. (8) All measurements were obtained in a blinded manner and were highly reproducible; however, this study and previous investigations are affected by fundamental limitations in the use of QTd measurements. The accuracy of QT interval and dispersion measurements has been limited by difficulties with reliable identification of T-wave offset. (28) The reliability of both automatic and manual measurement of QTd is low. Efforts should be directed toward established as well as new methods for assessment and quantification of repolarization abnormalities, such as principal component analysis of the T wave, T-loop descriptors, and T-wave morphology and wavefront direction descriptors. (29)

We used [sup.201]Tl scintigraphy for the detection of cardiac involvement. Myocardial thallium involvement with normal coronary arteries was accepted as cardiac sarcoidosis. This criterion may be criticized because the endomyocardial biopsy or autopsy was suggested for definitive diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. (30) However, we studied live patients, and endomyocardial biopsy has a low yield of diagnostic accuracy. (30)

We have a limited number of follow-up patients (20 of 35 patients, 57%), and we have no data about Holter recordings of group, especially the patients with PVCs. Therefore, we need large study groups with perfect follow-up and Holter recordings.

CONCLUSION

QTd, cQTd, QTmax, and cQTmax intervals are prolonged in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis compared to patients with noncardiac sarcoidosis and control subjects. The incidence of PVC, which shows significant correlations with QTd, is greater in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. This study calls attention to the importance of ECG, a useful, simple, noninvasive, broadly accessible, easily repeatable/ applied, and affordable tool in the differentiation of the patients with and without cardiac involvement in sarcoidosis.

Manuscript received April 9, 2005; revision accepted May 25, 2005.

REFERENCES

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(2) Haywood LJ, Sharma OP, Siegel ME, et al. Detection of myocardial sarcoidosis by thallium 201 imaging. J Natl Med Assoc 1982; 74:959-964

(3) Fleming HA, Bailey SM. The prognosis of sarcoid heart disease in the United Kingdom. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; 465:543-550

(4) Tachibana T, Ohmori F, Ueda E. Clinical study of cardiac sarcoidosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; 465:530-542

(5) Matsui Y, Iwai K, Tachibana T, et al. Clinicopathologic study on fatal myocardial sarcoidosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1976; 278:455-469

(6) Robert WC, McAllister HA Jr, Ferrans VJ. Sarcoidosis of heart. Am J Med 1977; 63:86-108

(7) Fleming HA, Bailey SM. Sarcoid heart disease. J R Coll Physicians Lond 1981; 15:245-246

(8) Day CP, McComb JM, Campbell RW. QT dispersion: an indication of arrhythmia risk in patients with long QT intervals. Br Heart J 1990; 63:342-344

(9) Hohnloser SH, van de Loo A, Arendts W, et al. QT-dispersion in the surface ECG as a parameter of increased electrical vulnerability in acute myocardial ischemia. Z Kardiol 1993; 82:678-682

(10) Barr CS, Naas A, Freeman M, et al. QT dispersion and sudden unexpected death in chronic heart failure. Lancet 343:327-329

(11) Anastasiou-Nana MI, Nanas JN, Karagounis LA, et al. Relation of dispersion of QRS and QT in patients with advanced congestive heart failure to cardiac and sudden death mortality. Am J Cardiol 2000; 85:1212-1217

(12) Perkiomaki JS, Koistinen MJ, Yli-Mayry S, et al. Dispersion of QT interval in patients with and without susceptibility to ventricular tachyarrhythmias after previous myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:174-179

(13) van de Loo A, Arendts W, Hohnloser SH. Variability of QT dispersion measurements in the surface electrocardiogram in patients with acute myocardial infarction and in normal subjects. Am J Cardiol 1994; 74:1113-1118

(14) Otterstad JE. Measuring left ventricular volume and ejection fraction with the biplane Simpson's method. Heart 2002; 88:559-560

(15) Fields G, Sharma O, Siegel M. Detection of myocardial sarcoidosis by thallium-201 imaging. J Natl Med Assoc 1983; 63:478-480

(16) Bazett HC. An analysis of the time relations of electrocardiograms. Heart 1920; 7:353-355

(17) Lee KW, Okin PM, Kligfield P, et al. Precordial QT dispersion and inducible ventricular tachycardia. Am Heart J 1997; 134:1005-1013

(18) Stoletniy LN, Pai SM, Platt ML, et al. QT dispersion as a noninvasive predictor of inducible ventricular tachycardia. J Electrocardiol 1999; 32:173-177

(19) de Bruyne MC, Hoes AW, Kors JA, et al. QTc dispersion predicts cardiac mortality in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Circulation 1998; 97:467-472

(20) Okin PM, Devereux RB, Howard BV, et al. Assessment of QT interval and QT dispersion for prediction of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in American Indians: the Strong Heart Study. Circulation 2000; 101:61-66

(21) Naas AA, Davidson NC, Thompson C, et al. QT and QTc dispersion are accurate predictors of cardiac death in newly diagnosed non-insulin dependent diabetes: cohort study. BMJ 1998; 316:745-746

(22) Rossing P, Breum L, Major-Pedersen A, et al. Prolonged QTc interval predicts mortality in patients with type I diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2001; 18:199-205

(23) Dekker JM, Schouten EG, Klootwijk P, et al. Association between QT interval and coronary heart disease in middle-aged and elderly men: the Zutphen Study. Circulation 1994; 90:779-785

(24) Lewin RF, Spitzer S, Ardith A, et al. Echocardiographic evaluation of patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1985; 110:116-122

(25) Bulkly BH, Rouleau JR, Whitaker JQ, et al. The use of 201 thallium for myocardial perfusion imaging in sarcoid heart disease. Chest 1977; 72:27-32

(26) Jain A, Starek PJ, Delany DL. Ventricular tachycardia and ventricular aneurysm due to unrecognized sarcoidosis. Clin Cardiol 1990; 13:738-740

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(28) Glancy JM, Weston PJ, Bhullar HK, et al. Reproducibility and automatic measurement of QT dispersion. Eur Heart J 1996; 17:1035-1039

(29) Malik M, Batchvarov VN. Measurement, interpretation and clinical potential of QT dispersion. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000; 36:1749-1766

(30) Uemura A, Morimoto S, Hiramitsu S, et al. Histologic diagnostic rate of cardiac sarcoidosis: evaluation of endomyocardial biopsies. Am Heart J 1999; 138:299-302

Huseyin Uyarel, MD; Nevzat Uslu, MD; Ertan Okmen, MD; Zeynep Tartan, MD; Hulya Kasikcioglu, MD; Sennur Unal Dayi, MD; and Nese Cam, MD

* From the Department of Cardiology, Siyami Ersek Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery Center, Istanbul, Turkey.

Correspondence to: Huseyin Uyarel, MD, Dumlupmar Mh. Mandwa Cad., Volkangul Sok. Recep Nak Apt. 28/9, 34710 Fikirtepe-Kadzkoy, Istanbul, Turkey; e-mail: uyarel@yahoo.com

COPYRIGHT 2005 American College of Chest Physicians
COPYRIGHT 2005 Gale Group

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